The Philippine Revolutionary Government

The Malolos Congress

Emilio Aguinaldo issued a decree on July 18, 1898 asking for the election of delegates to the revolutionary congress, another decree was promulgated five days later, which declared that Aguinaldo would appoint representatives of congress because holding elections is not practical at that time. He appointed 50 delegates in all (but this number fluctuated from time to time). In accordance with these two decrees, Aguinaldo assembled the Revolutionary Congress at the Brasoain Church in Malolos, Bulacan on September 15, 1898.

The atmosphere was festive and the Pasig Band played the national anthem. After Aguinaldo had read his speech congressional elections were held among the delegates present. The following were among the most important achievements of the Malolos Congress:

1. In September 29, 1898, ratified the declaration of Philippine independence held at Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898

2. Passage of a law that allowed the Philippines to borrow P 20 million from banks for government expenses

3. Establishment of the Universidad Literatura de Filipinas and other schools

4. Drafting of the Philippine Constitution

5. Declaring war against the United States on June 12, 1899

Malolos Constitution

A committee headed by Felipe Calderon and aided by Cayetano Arellano, the constitution was drafted, for the first time by representatives of the Filipino people and it is the first republican constitution in Asia. The constitution was inspired by the constitutions of Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Brazil, Belgium and France. After some minor revisions (mainly due to the objections of Apolinario Mabini), the final draft of the constitution was presented to Aguinaldo. This paved the way to launching the first Philippine Republic. It established a democratic, republication government with three branches - the Executive, Legislative and the Judicial branches. It called for the separation of church and state. The executive powers were to be exercise by the president of the republic with the help of his cabinet. Judicial powers were given to the Supreme Court and other lower courts to be created by law. The Chief justice of the Supreme Court was to be elected by the legislature with the concurrence of the President and his Cabinet.

First Philippine Republic

The first Philippine Republic was inaugurated in Malolos, Bulacan on January 21, 1899. After being proclaimed president, Emilio Aguinaldo took his oath of office. The constitution was read article by article and followed by a military parade. Apolinario Mabini was elected as a prime minister. The other cabinet secretaries were: Teodoro Sandico, interior; Baldomero Aguinaldo, war; Gen. Mariano Trias, finance & war; Apolinario Mabini, foreign affairs; Gracio Gonzaga for welfare, Aguedo Velarde, public instruction; Maximo Paterno, public works & communication; and Leon María Guerrero for agriculture, trade & commerce.

The Philippine National Anthem

Aguinaldo commissioned Julian Felipe, a composer from Cavite province was asked to write an an instrumental march for the proclamation of independence ceremony. The original title was "Marcha Filipina Magdalo". This was later changed to "Marcha Nacional Filipina". The lyrics was added in August 1899 based on the poem titled "Filipinas" by Jose Palma. The original lyrics was written in Spanish, then to English (when the Flag Law was abolished during the American period) then later, was translated to Tagalog, which underwent another change of title to “Lupang Hinirang”, the Philippine National Anthem.

The Katipunan is born

The Katipunan Finally Starts a Revolution

The Katipunan is born

Andres Bonifacio was also a member of La Liga Filipina, although he soon lost hope in gaining reforms though peaceful means. This feeling was especially heightened when Jose Rizal was exiled to Dapitan. Bonifacio became convinced that the only way the Philippines could gain independence was through a revolution.

Bonifacio then founded the “Katastaasang Kagalanggalangang Katipuanan ng mga Anak ng Bayan” (KKK) on July 7, 1892 in a house on Azcarraga street (now Claro M. Recto), in Tondo Manila.

The Katipunan had colorful beginnings. As a symbol of the member’s loyalty, they performed the solemn rite of sanduguan (blood compact), wherein each one signed his name with his own blood..

The members agreed to recruit more people using the “triangle system” of enlistment. Each original member would recruit tow new members who were not related to each other. Each new member would do the same thing, and so on down the line. Members were also asked to contribute one Real (about 25 centavos) each month in order to raise funds for the association.

The KKK members agreed on the following objectives:

▪ The political goal was to completely separate the Philippines from Spain after declaring the country’s independence.
▪ The moral goal was to teach the Filipinos good manners, cleanliness, hygiene, fine morals, and how to guard themselves against religious fanaticism..
▪ The civic goal was to encourage Filipinos to help themselves and to defend the poor oppressed.

The “Kataastaasang Sanggunian” (supreme council) was the highest governing body of the Katipunan. It was headed by a supremo, or president. Each province had a “Sangguaniang Bayan” (Provincial Council) and each town had a “Sangguniang Balangay” (Popular Council).

The Leaders of the Katipunan:

▪ Deodato Arellano -Supremo
▪ Ladislao Diwa -Fiscal
▪ Teodora Plata -Secretary
▪ Valentine Diaz -treasurer
▪ Andres Bonifacio -controller

Jose Rizal and the Katipunan

Jose Rizal never became involved in the organization and activities of the Katipunan; but the Katipuneros still looked up to him as a leader. In fact, Rizal’s name was used as a password among the society’s highest-ranking members, who were called bayani.

Andres Bonifacio had already known Rizal during his La Liga Filipina days, although Rizal did not know Bonifacio personally Nevertheless, Bonifacio so respected Rizal’s intelligence and talent that in June 1896, he sent Dr. Pio Valenzuela to Dapitan to seek Rizal’s advice on the planned revolution.

Rizal told Valenzuela that the timing was not right for a revolution. The people were not yet ready and they did not have enough weapons. He suggested that the Katipunan obtain the support of wealthy and influential Filipinos first, in order to gain financial assistance. He also recommended Antonio Luna as commander of its armed forces, since Luna had much knowledge and expertise in military tactics.

Valenzuela returned to Manila on June 26 and relayed Rizal’s advice to Bonifacio, who admitted that it would indeed be fatal for the Filipinos to fight without enough weapons. However, there was no stopping the Revolution. Bonifacio ordered his men to prepare for battle. He directed them to store enough food and other supplies. Battle plans were made with the help of Emilio Jacinto. It was suggested that the revolutionary headquarters be located near the seas or mountains to provide for an easy retreat, if necessary.

The Katipunan is Discovered

Rumors about a secret revolutionary society had long been in circulation, although no solid evidence could be found to support them. The big break as far as the Spanish authorities was concerned, came on August 19, 1896 when a KKK member, Teodoro Patiño told his sister Honoria about the existence of the Katipunan. Patiño was a worker in the printing press of Diario de Manila. Honoria was then living with nuns in a Mandaluyong orphanage.

The information upset Honoria so much that she told the orphanage’s Mother Superior, Sor Teresa de Jesus, what her brother had revealed. Sor Teresa suggested they seek the advice of Father Mariano Gil, the parish priest of Tondo.

After hearing Patiño’s revelations, Father Mariano Gil-accompanied by several Guardias Civiles immediately searched the premises of Diario de Manila and found evidence of the Katipunan’s existence. The governor general was quickly informed. The printing press was padlocked and hundreds of suspected KKK members were arrested. 

La Solidaridad & La Liga Filipina

La Solidaridad & La Liga Filipina

La Liga Filipina

In 1892, Jose Rizal (full name: Jose Protacio Mercado Rizal y Alonzo) returned to the Philippines and proposed the establishment of a civic organization called “La Liga Filipina.” On July 3, 1892, the following were elected as its officers: Ambrosio Salvador, president: Agustin dela Rosa, fiscal; Bonifacio Arevalo, treasurer; and Deodato Arellano, secretary. Rizal functioned as its adviser.

La Liga Filipina aimed to:

▪ Unite the whole country
▪ Protect and assist all members
▪ Fight violence and injustice
▪ Support education
▪ Study and implement reforms

La Liga Filipina had no intention of rising up in arms against the government; but the Spanish officials still felt threatened. On July 6, 1892 only three days after La LigaFilipina’s establishment, Jose Rizal was secretly arrested. The next day, Governor General Eulogio Despujol ordered Rizal’s deportation to Dapitan, a small, secluded town in Zamboanga.

La Liga Filipina's membership was active in the beginning; but later, they began to drift apart. The rich members wanted to continue supporting the Propaganda Movement; but the others seemed to have lost all hope that reforms could still be granted. Andres Bonifacio was one of those who believed that the only way to achieve meaningful change was through a bloody revolution.

La Solidaridad

In order to help achieve its goals, the Propaganda Movement put up its own newspaper, called La Solidaridad. The Soli, as the reformists fondly called their official organ, came out once every two weeks. The first issue saw print was published on November 15, 1895.

The Solidaridad’s first editor was Graciano Lopez Jaena. Marcelo H. del Pilar took over in October 1889. Del Pilar managed the Soli until it stopped publication due to lack of funds.

Why the Propaganda Movement Failed

The propaganda movement did not succeed in its pursuit of reforms. The colonial government did not agree to any of its demands. Spain itself was undergoing a lot of internal problems all that time, which could explain why the mother country failed to heed the Filipino’s petitions. The friars, on the other hand, were at the height of their power and displayed even more arrogance in flaunting their influence. They had neither the time nor the desire to listen to the voice of the people.

Many of the reformists showed a deep love for their country, although they still failed to maintain a united front. Because most of them belonged to the upper middle class, they had to exercise caution in order to safeguard their wealth and other private interests. Personal differences and petty quarrels, apart from the lack of funds, were also a hindrance to the movements success. Lastly, no other strong and charismatic leader emerged from the group aside from Jose Rizal. 

The Death of Gomburza

The Death of Gomburza & The Propaganda Movement

In February 17, 1872, Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos and Jocinto Zamora (Gomburza), all Filipino priest, was executed by the Spanish colonizers on charges of subversion. The charges against Fathers Gomez, Burgos and Zamora was their alleged complicity in the uprising of workers at the Cavite Naval Yard. The death of Gomburza awakened strong feelings of anger and resentment among the Filipinos. They questioned Spanish authorities and demanded reforms. The martyrdom of the three priests apparently helped to inspire the organization of the Propaganda Movement, which aimed to seek reforms and inform Spain of the abuses of its colonial government.

The illustrados led the Filipinos’ quest for reforms. Because of their education and newly acquired wealth, they felt more confident about voicing out popular grievances. However, since the illustrados themselves were a result of the changes that the Spanish government had been slowly implementing, the group could not really push very hard for the reforms it wanted. The illustrados did not succeeded in easing the sufferings of the Filipinos; but from this group arose another faction called the intelligentsia.  The intelligentsia also wanted reforms; but they were more systematic and used a peaceful means called the Propaganda Movement.

Goals of the Propaganda Movement

Members of the Propaganda Movement were called propagandists or reformists. They worked inside and outside the Philippines. Their objectives were to seek:

▪ Recognition of the Philippines as a province of Spain

▪ Equal status for both Filipinos and Spaniards

▪ Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes

▪ Secularization of Philippine parishes.

▪ Recognition of human rights

The Propaganda Movement never asked for Philippine independence because its members believed that once Spain realized the pitiful state of the country, the Spaniards would implement the changes the Filipinos were seeking.

The Propagandists

The Filipinos in Europe were much more active in seeking reforms than those in Manila. They could be divided into three groups: The first included Filipinos who had been exiled to the Marianas Islands in 1872 after being implicated in the Cavite Mutiny. After two many years in the Marianas, they proceeded to Madrid and Barcelona because they could no longer return to the Philippines. The second group consisted of illustrados in the Philippines who had been sent to Europe for their education. The third group was composed of Filipinos who had fled their country to avoid punishment for a crime, or simply because they could not stand Spanish atrocities any longer. Still, not all Filipinos living in Spain were members of the Propaganda Movement. Jose Rizal, Graciano Lopez Jaena and Marcelo H. del Pilar were it most prominent members.

Lopez Jaena was a brilliant orator who wrote such pieces as "Fray Botod," "Esperanza," and "La Hija del Fraile," which all criticized the abuses of Spanish friars in the Philippines. Del Pilar was an excellent writer and speaker who put up the newspaper Diarion Tagalog in 1882. His favorite topic was the friars. Some of his most popular writings included "Caiingat Cayo", "Dasalan at Tocsohan," and "Ang Sampung Kautusan ng mga Prayle". "Caingat Cayo" was a pamphlet answering the criticisms received by Jose Rizal’s novel Noli Me Tangere. "Dasalan…" was parody of the prayer books used by the Church, while "Ang Sampung Kautusan…" was a satirical take on the Ten Commandments, which highly ridiculed the Spanish friars.

Jose Rizal was recognized as the great novelist of the Propaganda Movement. He was the first Filipino become famous for his written works. He wrote a poem entitled “Sa Aking mga Kababata” when he was only eight years old. His novels, Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, clearly depicted the sufferings of the Filipinos and the rampant abuses committed by the friars in the colony. Because of his criticisms of the government and the friars, Rizal made a lot of enemies. He was executed at Bagumbayan (later renamed Luneta Park and now called Rizal Park) on December 30, 1896.

The writings produced by the Propaganda Movement inspired Andres Bonifacio and other radicals to establish the Katipunan and set the Philippine Revolution in place. 

The Philippine Revolution Ends

End of the Philippine Revolution

Aguinaldo is Captured

Gen. Funston plotted the capture of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo. On the night of March 6, 1901, He boarded the American warship Vicksburg and docked at Casiguran Bay on March 14. From Palanan Funston group reached Aguinaldo’s headquarters in Palanan on March 23, 1901. The Macabebe Scouts pretended to have been sent by Lacuna, with the American officials as their prisoners. Thus Aguinaldo have no idea of his impending capture until Tal Placido of the Macabebe Scouts embraced him. The Americans then declared the arrest of Aguinaldo and his men in the name of the United States government. Aguinaldo was brought to Manila and presented to then military Governor-GeneralArthur MacArthur, Jr. (father of General Douglas MacArthur) at Malacanang Palace. On April 19, 1901 he finally pledged allegiance to the United States.

The Philippine Revolution Ends

The first to yield to the Americans was by General Simion Ola. He surrendered to Colonel Harry Bandoltz in Guinobatan Albay on September 25.1903. Other revolutionaries soon followed.

Military Government

General Wesley Merritt was the highest-ranking American official in the Philippines after Spaniards surrendered Manila on August 13, 1898. He established a military government and became the first American Military governor of the Philippines. The objectives of the Military government are: 1) to establish peace and order to the Philippines, and 2) to prepare Philippines for civil governance. The government in the Philippines can be classified into opposition and collaboration. The Americans used propaganda and other means to win the Filipinos to their side.

The Schurman

The first commission was chaired by Dr. Jacob G. Schurman, president of Cornell University. Thus it became known as the Schurman Commission. Their group arrived on the Philippines on February 4, 1899. The commission proposed the following:

1. Establish civil governments in areas were peace and order had been restored
2. Set up a bicameral legislature with members of the lower house to be all elective
3. Appoint American and Filipino member of the Upper house to head the cabinet
4. Preserve Philippine natural resources
5. Create a civil service system
6. Assign highly qualified Filipinos to important government positions

The US Congress adopted all the recommendation of the Schurman commission.

EDSA People Power Revolution

EDSA People Power Revolution

The Philippines was praised worldwide in 1986, when the so-called bloodless revolution erupted, called EDSA People Power’s Revolution. February 25, 1986 marked a significant national event that has been engraved in the hearts and minds of every Filipino. This part of Philippine history gives us a strong sense of pride especially that other nations had attempted to emulate what we have shown the world of the true power of democracy. The true empowerment of democracy was exhibited in EDSA by its successful efforts to oust a tyrant by a demonstration without tolerance for violence and bloodshed. Prayers and rosaries strengthened by faith were the only weapons that the Filipinos used to recover their freedom from President Ferdinand Marcos’s iron hands. The Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) stretches 54 kilometers, where the peaceful demonstration was held on that fateful day. It was a day that gathered all Filipinos in unity with courage and faith to prevail democracy in the country. It was the power of the people, who assembled in EDSA, that restored the democratic Philippines, ending the oppressive Marcos regime. Hence, it came to be known as the EDSA People Power’s Revolution.

The revolution was a result of the long oppressed freedom and the life threatening abuses executed by the Marcos government to cite several events like human rights violation since the tyrannical Martial Law Proclamation in 1972. In the years that followed Martial Law started the suppressive and abusive years–incidents of assassination were rampant, particularly those who opposed the government, individuals and companies alike were subdued. The Filipinos reached the height of their patience when former Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, Sr. was shot and killed at the airport in August 21, 1983, upon his return to the Philippines from exile in the United States. Aquino’s death marked the day that Filipinos learned to fight. His grieving wife, Corazon Cojuangco-Aquinoshowed the Filipinos and the world the strength and courage to claim back the democracy that Ferdinand Marcos arrested for his personal caprice. Considering the depressing economy of the country, Ninoy’s death further intensified the contained resentment of the Filipinos. In the efforts to win back his popularity among the people, Marcos held a snap presidential election in February 7, 1986, where he was confronted with a strong and potent opposition, Corazon Aquino. It was the most corrupt and deceitful election held in the Philippine history. There was an evident trace of electoral fraud as the tally of votes were declared with discrepancy between the official count by the COMELEC (Commission on Elections) and the count of NAMFREL (National Movement for Free Elections). Such blatant corruption in that election was the final straw of tolerance by the Filipinos of the Marcos regime. Thedemonstration started to break in the cry for democracy and the demand to oust Marcos from his seat at Malacañang Palace. The revolt commenced when Marcos' Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and the Armed Forces Vice-Chief of Staff command of Fidel V. Ramos, both withdrew their support from the government and called upon the resignation of then President Marcos. They responsibly barricaded Camp Crame and Camp Aguinaldo and had their troops ready to combat against possible armed attack organized by Marcos and his troops. The Catholic Church represented by Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin along with the priests and nuns called for the support of all Filipinos who believed in democracy. Radyo Veritas aired the message of Cardinal Sin that summoned thousands of Filipinos to march the street of EDSA. It was an empowering demonstration that aimed to succeed peacefully with the intervention of faith. Nuns kneeled in front of tanks with rosaries in their hands and uttering their prayers.

With the power of prayers, the armed marine troops under the command of Marcos withdrew from the site. Celebrities expressed their support putting up a presentation to showcase the injustices and the anomalies carried out by the Marcos administration. Finally, in the morning of February 25, 1986, Corazon Aquino took the presidential oath of office, administered by theSupreme Court Associate Justice Claudio Teehankee at Club Filipino located in San Juan. Aquino was proclaimed as the 11th President of the Republic of the Philippines. She was the first lady president of the country. People rejoiced over their victory proving the success of the EDSA People’s Power Revolution, the historic peaceful demonstration. Although in 2001, there was an attempt to revive People Power in the efforts to oust then President Joseph Estrada, it was not as strong as the glorifying demonstration in 1986. The bloodless, People Power Revolution in EDSA renewed the power of the people, strengthened the meaning of democracy and restored the democratic institutions of government. Continue to the 5th Republic (1986) up to the Present Time.

The Biak-na Bato Republic

The Biak-na Bato Republic

Emilio Aguinaldo established his headquarters in Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan province. The news immediately spread throughout the country, and the revolutionaries were once more in high spirits. General llanera, who was in Nueva Ecija, declared his support for Aguinaldo. In July 1897, Aguinaldo established the Biak-na-Bato Republic and issued aproclamation stating the following demands:

▪ Expulsion of the friars and the return of the friar lands to the Filipinos
▪ Representation of the Philippines in the Spanish Cortes
▪ Freedom of the press and of religion
▪ Abolition of the government’s power to banish Filipinos
▪ Equality for all before the law.

A charter based on the Cuban Constitution was also drafted by Felix Ferrer and Isabelo Artacho. It was signed on November 1, 1897. The Biak-na-Bato Constitution provided for the establishment of a Supreme council that would serve as the highest governing body of the Republic. It also outlined certain basic human rights, such as freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and the right to education. Emilio Aguinaldo and Mariano Trias were elected Supreme Council president and vice president, respectively.

The Pact of Biak-na-Bato

Pedro Paterno, a Spaniard born in the Philippines volunteered to act as negotiator between Aguinaldo and Gov. Primo de Rivera in order to end the clashes. Paterno’s effort paid off when on, December 15, 1897, the Pact he sign the Pact as the representative of the revolutionaries, and de Rivera as the representative of the Spanish government. The Leaders are: Emilio Aguinaldo-President, Mariano Trias-Vice President, Antonio Montenegro-Secretary, Baldomero Aguinaldo-Treasurer, and Emilio Riego de Dios.

On December 23, 1897, Generals Celestino Tejero and Ricardo Monet of the Spanish army arrived in Biak-na-Bato and became hostages of the rebels. A ceasefire was declared by both camps and an agreement between Aguinaldo and the Spanish forces was made -that the Spanish government will grant self-rule to the Philippines in 3 years if Aguinaldo went to exile and surrender his arms. In exchange, Aguinaldo will receive P800,000 (Mexican Pesos) as remuneration to therevolutionaries and an amnesty. After receiving a partial payment of P400,000, Aguinaldo left for Hong Kong on December 27, 1897. Some Filipino generals, however, did not believe in the sincerity of the Spaniards. They refused to surrender their arms. Nevertheless, the Te Deum was still sung on January 23, 1898.

The Biak-na-Bato Pact Fails

The Filipino’s and the Spaniards did not trust each other. As a result, periodic clashes between the two groups still took place even after Aguinaldo’s departure from the country. The Spanish did not pay the entire agreed amount. Continue to The Spanish-American War.

Cry of Pugadlawin

The Cry of Pugadlawin

News about the discovery of the Katipunan spread to Manila and nearby suburbs, and Andres Bonifacio immediately called for a general meeting. Various wings of the Katipunan gathered at the house of Juan Ramos in Pugadlawin on August 23, 1896. Ramos was the son of Melchora Aquino, also known as “Tandang Sora” and was later acknowledged as the Mother of the Katipunan."

Bonifacio asked his men whether they were willing to fight to the bitter end. Everyone shouted their approval, except for Teodoro Plata, who though that it was too soon for a revolution. Heartened by his men’s response, Bonifacio then asked them to tear their cedulas (residence certificates) to pieces, as a sign of their defiance and determination to rise against the Spaniards. The men immediately tore up their cedulas, shouting, Mabuhay ang Pilipinas (long live the Philippines) -known as the Cry of Pugadlawin.

The Katipunan in Cavite

Cavite soon became the center of the Revolution, and the Katipuneros there divided themselves into the Magdalo and Magdiwang factions. Baldomero Aguinaldo, brother of Emilio Aguinaldo, headed the Magdalo group, which was stationed in Kawit. General Mariano Alvarez led the Magdiwang group, which was stationed in Noveleta.

The two groups fought in separate battles. Emilio Aguinaldo overran Kawit on August 31, 1896, while Alvarez attacked Noveleta. In Bacoor, Aguinaldo tried to intercept Spanish reinforcements coming from Manila; but he was repulsed and forced to retreat to nearby Imus. Here, on the morning of September 5, he defeated the Spanish troops under the command of General Aguirre. A hundred Spaniards were killed and 60 weapons were confiscated. Aguinaldo was hailed as a hero. The adoring Caviteños referred to him as “General Miong” and no longer “Kapitan Miong.”

General Aguinaldo’s numerous victories in the battlefield made him the acknowledged revolutionary leader in Cavite. He issued a proclamation on October 31, 1896 enjoining the people to take courage and continue fighting for Philippine independence.

Owing to the defeat of the Spaniards in Cavite, Camilo de Polavieja replaced Ramon Blanco as governor general on December 13, 1896. Polavieja was more successful than his predecessor and slowly regained one-third of the province.

Andres Bonifacio's Execution

While Aguinaldo was recognized as leader by the Magdalo faction, Bonifacio was recognized as the leader of the Katipunan by the Magdiwang faction. An assembly was held in Imus, Cavite on December 31, 1897 to settle the leadership issue but was not successful. Then on March 22, another assembly was held at Tejeros (known as the Tejeros Convention) to elect officers of the revolutionary government. Aguinaldo won as president while Bonifacio was relegated as the Director of the Interior. Bonifacio rejected the elections and declared it void. Bonifacio later formed the Naic Military Agreement, essentially creating a government contending Aguinaldo's. Soon after, Bonifacio was captured, stood trial, and was sentenced to death by a War Council of Aguinaldo's government. Aguinaldo initially commuted the sentence to deportation but later reversed the commutation upon pressure from Pio Del Pilar and other officers. On orders from General Mariano Noriel, Andres Bonifacio was executed at the foothills of Mt. Buntis by Major Lazaro Makapagal on May 10, 1897.

The Revolution Continues

Bonifacio’s death did not deter the Filipinos from fighting for their freedom. The Spanish government, for its part, doubled its efforts in trying to control Cavite, which was considered the seat of the Revolution. When Governor General Primo de Rivera replaced Camilo Polavieja on April 27, 1897, he immediately marched to Naic, Cavite to persuade the Filipinos to surrender. The rebels, however, stood their ground.

Aguinaldo realized that Cavite was no longer safe for his men. They moved to Batangas, where they temporarily set up camp in the town of Talisay. However, Spanish soldiers were able to pursue them there. Thus, they retreated to Morong on June 10, 1897 and proceeded to Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan. Click here to continue with Pact of Biak-na-Bato.

The Battle of Manila Bay

The Battle of Manila Bay

George Dewey, then a Commodore United States Navy’s Asiatic Squadron was waiting in Hong Kong when He received a cable from the then secretary of Navy, Theodore Roosevelt, stating that the war had begun between the US and Spain. Dewey sailed from Hong Kong on board his flagship Olympia with six other heavily armed ships. He brought with him a report on the location of the Spanish ships in Corregidor and Manila at dawn of May 1, 1898. Dewey enteredManila Bay almost undetected. When he saw the Spanish ships, which were under the command of General Patricio Montoya, he ordered his men to fire. The battle began at 5:41 in the morning and by 12:30 of the same day, the Spaniards were raising the white flag in surrender. Although The Spanish ships outnumbered those of the Americans; the weapons of the Americans were far more superior to those of the Spaniards. The battle proved to be too costly for the Spaniards, who lost 167 men and had 214 others wounded. As for the Americans, no ships were destroyed, and no soldier was killed or injured. The Battle of Manila Bay is considered one of the easiest encounters ever won in world history.

The Siege of Manila

By June 1898, General Emilio Aguinaldo had captured the whole of Luzon and was ready to storm Manila with the help of Gregorio del Pilar, Artemio Recarte, Antonio Montenegro, Pantaleon Garcia, and many other able generals. At that time, the term “Manila” referred to the walled city of Intramuros. Aguinaldo’s men surrounded the walls of Intramuros. Nearby areas like Tondo, Sta. Cruz, San Juan, and Caloocan were likewise secured. The Spaniards stubbornly hoped for the arrival of reinforcements from the Spanish mainland, but none ever came. Aguinaldo on the other hand, was firmly convinced that it just was a matter of days before the Spaniards surrendered. Therefore, he started planning for the declaration of Philippine independence. Continue to Revolutionary Government: Malolos Congress.

All the presidents of the Philippines

PHILIPPINE PRESIDENTS & VICE-PRESIDENTS LIST

(with pictures of all the presidents of the Philippines)

FIRST REPUBLIC (Revolutionary government/The Philippines was still under Spanish rule)
	(1899-1901) President: Emilio F. Aguinaldo (1897?) Vice-President: Mariano C. Trias (elected VP during the Tejeros assembly)
COMMONWEALTH PERIOD (American Period)
	(1935-1944) President Manuel L. Quezon (Died in exile in the U.S.) (1936-1944) Vice-President: Sergio S. Osmeña, Sr.
	(1944-1946) President: Sergio S. Osmeña, Sr. (Assumed the presidency upon the death of Quezon while the Philippine Commonwealth government is in exile in the U.S.)
SECOND REPUBLIC (Japanese Occupation)
	(1943-1945) President: Jose P. Laurel (1943-1945) Vice-Presidents: Benigno Aquino, Sr. and Ramon Avancena
THIRD REPUBLIC
	(1946-1948) President: Manuel L. Roxas (Died of a heart attack) (1946-1948) Vice-President: Elpidio R. Quirino
	(1948-1953) President: Elpidio R. Quirino (Assumed the remaining term & re-elected) (1949-1953) Vice-President: Fernando H. Lopez
	(1953-1957) President: Ramon F. Magsaysay (Magsaysay died in an airplane crash on March 16, 1957 on Mt. Manunggal in Cebu) (1953-1957) Vice-President: Carlos P. Garcia
	(1957-1961) President: Carlos P. Garcia (Assumed the remaining term and re-elected) (1957-1961) Vice-President: Diosdado P. Macapagal
	(1961-1965) President: Diosdado P. Macapagal (1961-1965) Vice-President: Emmanuel N. Pelaez
	(1965-1972) President: Ferdinand E. Marcos (the first to win 2 presidential terms) (1965-1972) Vice-President: Fernando H. Lopez
FOURTH REPUBLIC (Martial Law, "The New Republic" & Parliamentary Government)
	(1972-1986) President: Ferdinand E. Marcos (unseated by the People Power Revolution) (Marcos died in exile in Hawaii on September 28, 1989 of Lupus complications) (1981-1986) Prime Minister Cesar E. A. Virata (1986) Vice-President: Arturo M. Tolentino (proclaimed but did not serve due to the revolt)
FIFTH REPUBLIC (Under the new "People Power" Constitution)
	(1986-1992) President: Corazon Cojuangco-Aquino (1986-1992) Vice-President: Salvador H. Laurel
	(1992-1998) President Fidel V. Ramos (1992-1998) Vice-President: Joseph Ejercito Estrada
	(1998-2001) President: Joseph Ejercito Estrada (Deposed by "People Power") (1998-2001) Vice-President: Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
	(2001-2010) President: Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (Assumed Estrada's remaining term & re-elected) (2001-2004) Vice-President: Teofisto T. Guingona (1st term of Arroyo) (2004-2010) Vice-President: Manuel "Noli" Leuterio de Castro (2nd term of Arroyo)
	(2010-2016) President: Benigno Simeon "Noynoy" Cojuangco Aquino III (2010-2016) Vice-President: Jejomar "Jojo" Cabauatan Binay
	(2016-Present) President: Rodrigo "Rody" Roa Duterte a.k.a. Digong (2016-Present) Vice-President: Maria Leonor "Leni" Santo Tomas Gerona-R